Largely abandoned by 800 and pillaged by border tribes. Intense land pressure and more erratic rainfall favored soil destruction and ecological degradation during the seventh and eighth centuries. Trade declined after 600 and Axum was essentially landlocked by 715. The paleoclimatic ensemble suggests that stronger and more reliable spring rains allowed two crops yearly without irrigation, compared to only one with modern summer rains. 300, but a range of clayey stream deposits also implicates strong periodic floods and seasonally abundant moisture. Intensified land use led to mass movements in slope soils before A.D. 100 as a ceremonial center, growing to over 10,000 people, as a prosperous emporium for international trade. The civilization of Axum, spanning the first millennium A.D., had its settlement core on the now-denuded, subhumid plateau of northern Ethiopia. Civilizations represent human ecosystems amenable to systematic geo-archaeological analysis.
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